Regardless of when they served time, Americans who have at somepoint been incarcerated suffer long-term effects on bothwork and retirement savings.

That’s according to a study from The Associated Press-NORC Center for Public AffairsResearch, which finds that Americans age 50 and older who have beenbehind bars at some point in their lives aremore likely to have been unemployed in the recent past, to expressanxiety about several aspects of retirement, and to have fewersources of income for retirement than those who have not.

And when it comes to retirement savings, formerly incarceratedolder Americans are four times as likely to say they have nosources of retirement savings at all.

Incarceration in the U.S., the study says, is highly correlatedwith socioeconomic status; less-educated Americans and racialminorities are far more likely to be imprisoned. Bureau of JusticeStatistics data indicate that in 2015, 2.1 million people wereincarcerated in the U.S.

Not only are those who actually served time in prison affected, but the study also finds thatincarceration affects the retirement outlook of older Americans whohaven’t actually been in prison personally, but who have immediatefamily members who have served time in prison or jail.

Indirect as their experience with the penal system may be, theseolder Americans also express more anxiety about retirement.

Adults 50 and older who have previously served time in prison orjail are more than twice as likely as those who have not servedtime to have been unemployed in the last five years, at 43 percentcompared with 16 percent.

In addition, more of them are likely to be more anxious aboutretirement, at 57 percent compared with 42 percent.

They’re also less likely to be able to rely on Social Securityincome during retirement—62 percent, compared with 79 percent—butbe more likely to have disability payments, at 31 percent comparedwith 14 percent.